Applied anatomy of the vertebral column in small animals

Background: A review of the applied anatomy of the vertebral column in dogs and cats
Objective: To describe the basic anatomy of the vertebrae in different regions of the vertebral column, conformation, surface anatomy, radiological anatomy and applied anatomy of vertebrae, intervertebral discs and vertebral canal in small animals
Methods: A review study using sources published in the field of vertebral anatomy in carnivores in reputable national and international books
Results: Few parts of the vertebral column are palpable in small animals. All ossification centers usually close during the first year after birth in small animals, except for the vertebrae of the sacrum, which are slightly delayed. The eleventh thoracic vertebra is considered an anticlinal vertebra and can be easily recognized on radiographs. There is a hemal arch on the ventral surface of some caudal vertebrae in dogs and cats. The dorsal longitudinal ligament is strong in the cervical region and prevents the disc from protruding dorsally into the vertebral canal in this region, but dorsolateral protrusions towards the spinal nerve roots can occur. Approximately 15% of intervertebral disc problems in dogs occur in the cervical region. The rate of intervertebral disc problems is higher in the caudal thoracic intervertebral joints and also in the lumbar intervertebral joints, reaching 85%. The end of the spinal cord in dogs is the sixth or seventh lumbar vertebra. In large dogs, the spinal cord may be slightly cranial. In cats and some small dog breeds, the spinal cord may reach S1. Intervertebral disc herniation in small dogs causes more clinical problems.
Conclusion: In this article, in addition to reviewing the anatomy of the vertebral column in small animals, the applied anatomy for use in radiology and surgery was also discussed.