https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/ Eltiam en daily 1 Sat, 22 Nov 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 22 Nov 2025 00:00:00 +0330 https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_230080.html Background: A review of the applied anatomy of the vertebral column in dogs and catsObjective: To describe the basic anatomy of the vertebrae in different regions of the vertebral column, conformation, surface anatomy, radiological anatomy and applied anatomy of vertebrae, intervertebral discs and vertebral canal in small animalsMethods: A review study using sources published in the field of vertebral anatomy in carnivores in reputable national and international booksResults: Few parts of the vertebral column are palpable in small animals. All ossification centers usually close during the first year after birth in small animals, except for the vertebrae of the sacrum, which are slightly delayed. The eleventh thoracic vertebra is considered an anticlinal vertebra and can be easily recognized on radiographs. There is a hemal arch on the ventral surface of some caudal vertebrae in dogs and cats. The dorsal longitudinal ligament is strong in the cervical region and prevents the disc from protruding dorsally into the vertebral canal in this region, but dorsolateral protrusions towards the spinal nerve roots can occur. Approximately 15% of intervertebral disc problems in dogs occur in the cervical region. The rate of intervertebral disc problems is higher in the caudal thoracic intervertebral joints and also in the lumbar intervertebral joints, reaching 85%. The end of the spinal cord in dogs is the sixth or seventh lumbar vertebra. In large dogs, the spinal cord may be slightly cranial. In cats and some small dog breeds, the spinal cord may reach S1. Intervertebral disc herniation in small dogs causes more clinical problems.Conclusion: In this article, in addition to reviewing the anatomy of the vertebral column in small animals, the applied anatomy for use in radiology and surgery was also discussed. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234885.html Background: Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD) is one of the most common neurological disorders in dogs, particularly in small and chondrodystrophic breeds, characterized by degenerative or acute changes in the intervertebral disc. Considering its high clinical and economic importance, a deeper understanding of the molecular, cellular, and pathological mechanisms has received increasing attention in recent decades. This study is a narrative review.Objectives: The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive review of the latest scientific findings on the underlying mechanisms of IVDD in dogs, with emphasis on the role of molecular, cellular, and histopathological changes in the onset and progression of the disease, based on internationally published articles.Methods: This review was conducted by searching and analyzing published articles indexed in international databases between 1998 and 2025. Inclusion criteria were recency, direct relevance to IVDD pathophysiology, and publication in peer-reviewed journals.Results: The reviewed studies revealed that imbalance between matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs), upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and reduced expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-10 (IL-10) are major factors contributing to extracellular matrix degradation. At the cellular level, apoptosis of nucleus pulposus cells, phenotypic transformation toward chondrocyte-like cells, and infiltration of immune cells play critical roles. Histopathological features include fibrosis and calcification of the disc, annulus fibrosus rupture, disc extrusion, and spinal cord compression, which lead to clinical signs ranging from pain to paralysis. Microscopic lesions commonly consist of necrosis, chronic inflammation, inflammatory cell infiltration, and destruction of the normal disc structure.Conclusions: Understanding the molecular, cellular, and pathological changes underlying IVDD provides valuable insights into the disease pathophysiology and may facilitate the development of improved therapeutic and preventive strategies in dogs. Enhancing veterinarians’ and researchers’ knowledge in this field can contribute to better clinical outcomes and improved quality of life in affected animals https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234886.html Background: One of the most important and challenging aspects of neuroanesthesia in veterinary medicine is the management of anesthesia and pain in animals undergoing spinal surgery. Despite advancements in surgical techniques, pharmacological options, and physiological monitoring approaches, many patients are still at risk of associated complications.Objectives: This review outlines key considerations related to anesthesia and analgesia in animals undergoing spinal surgery.Methods: A review of the literature on anesthesia and analgesia management in neurosurgical procedures.Results: Neuroanesthesia in veterinary medicine—particularly in small animals—plays a vital role in ensuring safety, minimizing complications, and promoting successful postoperative functional outcomes. The main goals of anesthesia in this field include preserving neurological function, maintaining stable blood pressure, ensuring adequate oxygenation, and preventing secondary injuries. Key principles of effective anesthetic management include the appropriate selection of anesthetic and analgesic agents, a thorough understanding of the physiology of the central and peripheral nervous systems, awareness of drug effects on spinal cord blood flow, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and most importantly, achieving a balance between effective sedation and analgesia while preserving neurologic function and minimizing systemic side effects.An effective approach in this field requires a multimodal anesthesia and analgesia plan tailored to each patient's condition. The use of advanced monitoring techniques and pain management strategies—including opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and regional nerve blocks—are integral components of the multimodal approach.Conclusions: Ultimately, successful management of anesthesia and pain in spinal surgeries relies on a deep understanding of the pathophysiology of the nervous system and continuous collaboration between the anesthesia, surgical, and postoperative care teams. This coordinated approach helps prevent the exacerbation of neurological dysfunction throughout all stages of treatment and facilitates the recovery process. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234823.html Background: Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD) is one of the most common neurological disorders in small animals, particularly dogs, and represents a major cause of spinal pain and neurological dysfunction. The disease results from progressive disc degeneration and herniation, leading to compression of the spinal cord and nerve roots with significant impact on the animal’s quality of life.Objective: This review aims to describe the main surgical approaches for the treatment of cervical and thoracolumbar IVDD in small animals, highlighting their principles, advantages, limitations, and associated challenges.Methods: This study was conducted as a narrative review based on textbooks, peer-reviewed national and international articles, and the authors’ experiences regarding the surgical management of IVDD in small animals.Results: Intervertebral disc disease (IVDD) develops as a consequence of disc degeneration and subsequent protrusion or extrusion, leading to compression of the spinal cord and nerve roots, which may result in clinical signs such as pain, ataxia, paresis or paralysis, and loss of sphincter control, thereby markedly impairing the animal’s quality of life. Management of this condition depends on the severity of neurological deficits and the response to conservative treatment; however, in severe cases, surgical intervention becomes essential. In the cervical region, the ventral slot technique is considered the primary method for decompression, whereas in the thoracolumbar region, procedures such as hemilaminectomy, dorsal laminectomy, and corpectomy are employed. The choice of surgical technique depends on the location of the lesion, the severity of clinical signs, and the overall condition of the patient. When performed timely and appropriately, surgical treatment often yields favorable outcomes and, in many cases, leads to complete recovery of neurological function.Conclusion: This article reviews surgical approaches for the treatment of cervical and thoracolumbar intervertebral disc disease (IVDD) in small animals. Surgical intervention plays a pivotal role in the effective management of IVDD, with accurate diagnosis, appropriate case selection, access to advanced imaging, and surgical expertise being critical determinants of prognosis. The ventral slot technique remains the standard approach for cervical disc extrusion, while hemilaminectomy and fenestration are the most commonly employed procedures for thoracolumbar IVDD. When performed with proper technique and timely intervention, surgical management can significantly improve outcomes and restore neurological function in affected animals. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_230079.html Background: Spinal injuries in small animals, particularly dogs, are among the most frequent and complex challenges in veterinary specialty practice. These traumas—often resulting from car accidents, falls, or bite wounds—are commonly associated with high mechanical instability and neurological damage. Given the anatomical complexity and critical structures involved, accurate surgical planning and stabilization are essential. Objective: This article aims to describe and compare various surgical methods for spinal fixation in the cervical, thoracolumbar, and lumbosacral regions, providing practical clinical guidance for selecting the most appropriate technique based on anatomical location and injury characteristics.Methods: This narrative review compiles data from authoritative sources and clinical experience. It discusses injury classification using the three-compartment model, preoperative planning with advanced imaging (CT and MRI), reduction strategies, and surgical stabilization techniques. Methods covered include pin/monocortical screws with polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), locking plate systems such as the String of Pearls (SOP) and Locking Compression Plate (LCP), and transarticular screws, as well as other techniques. Anatomical considerations, implant selection, and intraoperative access are also addressed.Results: The findings suggest that careful technique selection based on the anatomical region, neurological status, patient size, and equipment availability plays a critical role in minimizing complications and optimizing outcomes. Monocortical screws combined with PMMA and locking plates offer improved biomechanical stability and safety compared to older methods. Postoperative care, including pain control and monitoring for implant integrity, is essential for successful recovery.Conclusion: Effective management of spinal injuries in small animals requires a systematic approach including accurate diagnosis, advanced imaging, tailored surgical planning, and postoperative care. This article provides a comprehensive reference for veterinary surgeons in the selection and application of appropriate spinal stabilization strategies. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234821.html Background: Vertebral column disorders represent prevalent clinical challenges in small animals (particularly dogs and cats), significantly impacting mobility and quality of life, thus requiring effective and occasionally urgent clinical management. This article is a review article.Objectives:To review modern methods in the diagnosis and treatment of vertebral column disorders in small animals.Methods: In this review, modern diagnostic and therapeutic methods were gathered and analyzed based on published evidence and studies.Results: Traditional surgical techniques such as laminectomy and hemilaminectomy, while effective in reducing neurological symptoms, are associated with significant disadvantages including extensive soft tissue invasion, risk of infection, bleeding, secondary nerve damage, long recovery periods, and high costs. Modern diagnostic advances such as CT imaging (with high accuracy in bone injuries) and MRI (superior in evaluating soft tissues and spinal cord) enable more accurate assessment and targeted treatment planning for spinal problems. In the field of treatment, minimally invasive spine surgery using small incisions and endoscopic instruments provides advantages including reduced tissue damage, less bleeding, limited post-operative pain, and shorter convalescence. Three-dimensional printing technology increases the accuracy of prosthesis placement, and artificial disc replacement as an alternative to traditional fusion, while preserving segmental movement and preventing degeneration of adjacent vertebrae, creates better functional outcomes in predisposed breeds. Regenerative therapies such as stem cell use and platelet-rich plasma, along with complementary methods like physiotherapy and ozone therapy, form a more comprehensive approach.Conclusions: Modern methods provide more effective and less invasive treatment options. However, challenges including high equipment costs, need for specialized training, and the necessity of protocol standardization require future attention. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234820.html Background: Small animal spinal surgery is a critical intervention performed to treat a variety of conditions, including spinal trauma, intervertebral disk disease (IVDD), neoplasia, and congenital abnormalities. Neurological, infectious, mechanical, and systemic problems and complications are inherent to this process and can impact the patient's recovery and quality of life.Objective: This review aims to provide a comprehensive list of risks associated with spinal surgery in small animals, rank them by severity, assess their prognosis, and cover prevention and management methods for these risks based on available information.Methodology: This article integrates data from retrospective and prospective veterinary studies, surgical outcome reports, and clinical case analyses. Various types of complications can occur at different times during this procedure and can be classified as neurological, infectious, mechanical/structural, or systemic. This study includes management techniques, diagnostic methods, and preventive measures.Results: The most common side effects include decreased neurological function, surgical site infection, aspiration pneumonia, and implant-related complications. The patient's neurological status before surgery, including the presence of deep pain sensation and the timing of surgical intervention, is an important prognostic factor. Reducing complications and improving outcomes are both achievable through advanced imaging, early physiotherapy, sterile surgical techniques, and postoperative monitoring.Conclusion: A preventative and interdisciplinary approach is essential for improving surgical outcomes in small animal spinal surgery. The key to reducing problems and increasing the chances of recovery is implementing appropriate interventions, which can be achieved through accurate and rapid diagnosis, comprehensive pre- and post-operative care, and long-term rehabilitation planning. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234818.html Background: Congenital vertebral malformations, particularly hemivertebrae, are prevalent in screw-tailed dog breeds such as French Bulldogs, English Bulldogs, and Pugs, with thoracic hemivertebrae reported in more than 93% of neurologically normal French Bulldogs, often without neurological signs. These malformations can cause myelopathy, presenting as ataxia, paresis, or urinary and/or fecal incontinence, often in the first year of life. While many cases are subclinical, severe kyphosis can result in deficits requiring advanced diagnostics and treatment.Objectives: To evaluate the diagnostic methods, surgical techniques, and therapeutic outcomes for managing congenital vertebral malformations in small animals, with a focus on stabilization techniques and their impact on clinical improvement, and to explore future directions for reducing disease incidence.Methods: A review study based on published sources on vertebral anomalies from reputable national and international journals and conferences.Results: CT and MRI are key tools for comprehensive preoperative evaluation, with CT excelling in bony malformation assessment and MRI in spinal cord evaluation. Medical therapy yielded poor long-term outcomes, with progression of neurological signs in most cases. Surgical stabilization, with or without decompression, improved clinical signs in most dogs, with techniques like biological in situ fusion showing promise in non-ambulatory dogs, achieving ambulation without metallic implants. Cobb angles >35° predicted neurological signs with 75% positive predictive value. Selective breeding and early screening were proposed to reduce malformation incidence.Conclusions: Surgical stabilization is the best therapeutic option for congenital vertebral malformations in small animals, providing better results than medical management by halting or reversing neurological decline. Advanced imaging is essential for surgical planning. Future efforts should focus on developing standardized grading systems, selective breeding, and early radiographic screening to mitigate disease prevalence and severity. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234817.html Background: Spinal tumors are generally uncommon in dogs, both in terms of their primary origin and metastatic spread from other sites. These tumors are classified according to their anatomical relationship to the spinal cord and dura mater, falling into three major categories: extradural, intradural–extramedullary, and intramedullary.Objectives: To examine the prevalence, types, clinical signs, and diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for spinal tumors in dogs.Methods: A thorough physical and neurological examination, supplemented by advanced imaging—including radiography, myelography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging—either individually or in combination, depending on the tumor type, anatomical compartment, and clinical priorities.Results: Extradural tumors are the most common, accounting for approximately half of all documented cases. Large-breed dogs are disproportionately affected, with roughly 28% of cases diagnosed in dogs under three years of age. Meningioma is the most frequent primary spinal tumor in dogs. Clinical signs are largely determined by lesion location and may be indistinguishable from other causes of myelopathy. Once a definitive diagnosis is established, treatment may involve surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or multimodal approaches tailored to tumor type, location, biological behavior, and patient condition. Key challenges include distinguishing neoplastic from non-neoplastic lesions, radiologic overlap, discordance between imaging and clinical findings, surgical planning relative to tumor compartment, limitations of radiation and chemotherapy, access to surgical technology, perioperative risk management, postoperative rehabilitation, and patient-specific factors such as age, breed, and comorbidities.Conclusions: Spinal tumors in dogs require a multifaceted diagnostic and therapeutic approach, with success dependent on careful imaging, individualized treatment planning, and comprehensive perioperative and postoperative management. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_230081.html Background: Corneal opacity is a major cause of vision impairment resulting from trauma and wounds. Corticosteroids are effective in reducing fibrosis; however, their use is associated with an increased risk of intraocular pressure (IOP). Losartan, an angiotensin II antagonist and TGF-β pathway inhibitor, has demonstrated antifibrotic potential in topical applications; however, its safety regarding IOP changes in animal models remains unclear.Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of topical losartan, betamethasone, and their combination on IOP in a rat model of partial-thickness corneal injury over a four-week treatment period.Methods: Twenty-four adult male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to four groups (n=6): negative control (BSS), topical Losartan (0.08%), topical betamethasone (0.1%), and a combination of losartan + betamethasone. Partial-thickness corneal injury was induced on day 0, and treatments were administered from day 4 onward. Each treatment consisted of six daily doses (every two hours) applied to the right eye for 30 days. At the end of the study, IOP in both eyes was measured using an iCare tonometer in three sets of six readings (a total average of 18 readings per eye). Data were reported as mean ± standard deviation and analyzed statistically for comparisons between groups and between treated and untreated eyes.Results: Mean IOP across the losartan, betamethasone, combination, and control groups showed no significant differences (p > 0.05). Similarly, no significant differences were observed between the treated (right) and untreated (left) eyes within any group (p > 0.05).ConclusionsThis study demonstrated that one-month application of topical Losartan, Betamethasone, and their combination for the treatment of opacity caused by partial-thickness corneal injury in rats has no significant impact on intraocular pressure. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_234816.html Background: Skin wound healing, particularly of infected wounds, is a significant medical challenge that requires effective and low-complication treatments. Medicinal plants have been proposed as promising options due to their antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties.  Objective: This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects of methanolic parsley extract on the healing of infected wounds caused by Staphylococcus aureus in rats.  Methods: In this study, 60 adult female rats were randomly divided into four groups of 15: the parsley (10% methanolic parsley extract ointment), the nitrofurazone (positive control), the Eucerin (base ointment), and the control group (no treatment). After anesthesia with ketamine-xylazine, the dorsal area was shaved, and a 1.5 cm diameter incision was made down to the muscle layer, followed by infection with 1 ml of Staphylococcus aureus. Wound treatments were administered for 21 days. Evaluations on days 7, 14, and 21 included: antibacterial testing (MIC), measurement of antioxidant activity using the DPPH method and calculation of IC₅₀, assessment of OS by measuring serum MDA using the TBARS test, histopathological examination (epithelialization, inflammation, collagen maturation, fibroblast count, angiogenesis), and macroscopic evaluation of wound contraction percentage using digital photography and ImageJ software.Results: The MIC of parsley extract for bacterial growth was 12 mg/mL, and its IC₅₀ for free radicals was 37.25 mg/mL. The TBARS assay demonstrated that the MDA levels in the parsley group were significantly lower than those in the eserine and control groups (1289 ± 19519 and 1064 ± 18959 ng/mL, respectively, versus 3251 ± 80769 ng/mL in the control, p = 2.71). Histopathological evaluation revealed the highest percentage of epithelialization, the lowest inflammation, the greatest maturation of collagen fibers, and a significant increase in angiogenesis on day 14 in the parsley group compared to the other groups. Macroscopic findings also indicated the highest percentage of wound contraction in the parsley group.Conclusion: Methanolic parsley extract, with its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties, accelerated the healing of infectious wounds and improved tissue repair quality in the animal model, suggesting it is a natural and low-side-effect option for treating this type of wound. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_222380.html Background: Infection control and improvement of the wound healing process are of great importance. Leech saliva has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and restorative properties, so it can be a good alternative to common antibiotics resistant to many bacteria. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the effect of leech saliva on the healing process of an open skin wound infected by Proteus mirabilis by examining histopathological and microbiological changes. Methods: After preparing leech saliva, a 5 percent leech ointment (95 grams of Eucerin, 5 grams of leech saliva) was made, and 60 male Wistar rats were prepared and divided into 4 groups. A wound with a 1.5cm diameter was created by a biopsy punch in the posterior area between the two scapulae skin of each rat. Then, it was infected by inoculation of 106cfu of bacteria. Then, the groups were treated separately with gentamicin ointment, Eucerin, and leech ointment. One group didn’t receive any medication as a control. Ointments were renewed every other day for up to 21 days. For microbial and histopathological investigations, sterile samples were taken randomly from 5 rats on days 7, 14, and 21 after euthanizing. Results: In the microbial investigation of the total number of bacteria during 21days, the bacterial population in the group treated with leech saliva was less than the other groups, which had a significant difference with the control group, and specifically, the difference in the number of bacteria on the seventh day was significant with the other groups. In the examination of pathology sections, including the examination of collagen, epithelization, fibroblast density, and the amount of inflammation and angiogenesis, there was a significant difference between the treatment group with leech saliva and the control group in inflammation, epithelization, and collagen production, and no significant difference was observed between the leech and gentamicin groups in most of the parameters, except for the epithelizing factor, which had a significant difference on the 21st day of treatment. Conclusions: This research aims to investigate leech saliva's effect in controlling inflammation and accelerating healing in infected wounds with Proteus mirabilis bacteria. The findings of this study show that leech saliva causes collagen production and increases the speed of the epithelialization process. Also, due to its antimicrobial properties, leech saliva can control the Proteus mirabilis bacterial population and can be a suitable substitute for antibiotics in short-term use. According to the discussion of antibiotic resistance regarding this bacterium, leech saliva can be used with appropriate antibiotics to control and accelerate the process of infected wounds, especially wounds infected with Proteus mirabilis. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_239270.html Background and Study Type: Lameness is one of the most important health and economic problems in dairy cows, associated with reduced animal welfare, decreased milk production, and increased culling rates. This Review Study was conducted with the aim of investigating the role of imaging modalities in the differential diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and prevention of lameness.Objective: The main objective was to analyze the capabilities and limitations of various imaging modalities, including Radiography (X-ray), Ultrasonography (USG), Computed Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), and Infrared Thermography (IRT), in identifying bone and soft tissue lesions associated with lameness.Methods: This article systematically reviewed scientific literature published between 1980 and 2025, collecting and analyzing key findings on the application of imaging in veterinary medicine. The focus was on studies that evaluated diagnostic accuracy, suitability for treatment monitoring, and feasibility for use in farm settings.Results: Ultrasonography was identified as the most practical and efficient method (Cost–Effectiveness Ratio: 0.85) due to its field-use capability and soft tissue assessment. It demonstrated a sensitivity of 0.97 in diagnosing septic arthritis. Radiography maintained its primary role in diagnosing phalangeal fractures and chronic bone lesions. Infrared Thermography (IRT), as a non-invasive and rapid screening tool, was able to detect inflammation (hoof surface temperature increase up to approximately $34.5^\circ\text{C}$) with a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 92.4%. Advanced methods like CT and MRI offered the highest accuracy (95% to 98%) in structural detail of bone and soft tissue but their widespread use is limited to complex and research cases. Furthermore, a significant correlation was found between reduced digital cushion thickness in USG and MRI with a low BCS, and increased bone lesions in radiography with a high Lameness Score (LS).Conclusion: Integrating multiple imaging modalities can significantly enhance the diagnostic accuracy and prognosis of lameness. The use of novel technologies such as Artificial Intelligence in image analysis promises a bright future for automated and preventive monitoring of dairy cow health. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_241781.html Background and Study Type: Lameness is one of the most prevalent health problems in dairy cows, with the majority of cases originating from claw horn lesions. This article is a narrative review focusing on the role of nutrition in bovine claw horn health.Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of nutritional and metabolic factors on claw horn integrity and the prevention of lameness in dairy cattle.Methods: A comprehensive literature review was conducted using peer‑reviewed national and international scientific databases focusing on nutrition and claw horn health in dairy cows.Results: The findings indicate that imbalances between rapidly fermentable carbohydrates and physically effective fiber predispose cows to Subacute Ruminal Acidosis (SARA), which triggers systemic inflammation, vascular dysfunction in the corium, and impaired keratinization, ultimately leading to weak claw horn tissue. Inadequate supply of micronutrients such as biotin, zinc, copper, manganese, and sulfur‑containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine) is associated with reduced horn quality, increased brittleness, and a higher incidence of sole ulcers, white line disease, and sole hemorrhages. The transition period represents the most critical phase of the production cycle, during which negative energy balance, hypocalcemia, hormonal fluctuations, and abrupt dietary changes intensify nutritional risk factors affecting claw health.Conclusions: Targeted nutritional management focusing on rumen stability, prevention of SARA, and adequate provision of essential nutrients for keratin synthesis plays a pivotal role in maintaining claw horn health and reducing lameness. Implementing appropriate feeding strategies, particularly during the transition period, can improve animal welfare, production performance, and economic outcomes in dairy herds. https://www.eltiamjournal.ir/article_242415.html Background:Claw Horn Lesions (CHL) are among the most prevalent and economically significant causes of lameness in dairy cows, including sole ulcers, white line disease, sole hemorrhage, and non-healing lesions. These conditions arise from complex interactions among metabolic stress, systemic inflammation, biomechanical overload, microbial factors, and impaired horn integrity. In addition to compromising animal welfare, CHL leads to reduced milk production, impaired reproductive performance, increased treatment costs, and higher culling rates. Therefore, early detection and effective monitoring strategies are essential for both clinical management and herd-level prevention.Objective:This review aims to critically summarize current evidence regarding clinical–pathological biomarkers associated with CHL and to evaluate their potential application in early diagnosis, disease monitoring, and assessment of therapeutic response.Methods:Published studies investigating biochemical and metabolic indicators (NEFA, BHB, glucose, cholesterol, liver enzymes, and acute-phase proteins), hematological parameters, inflammatory mediators, molecular markers (cytokines, chemokines, MMPs, ADAMTS proteases, and regulatory microRNAs), microbial findings (Treponema and Fusobacterium species), hormonal stress markers, and oxidative stress indices were systematically reviewed and analyzed.Results:Accumulating evidence indicates that alterations in metabolic, inflammatory, and oxidative markers frequently precede overt clinical signs of lameness. These biomarkers reflect negative energy balance, hepatic dysfunction, systemic inflammation, extracellular matrix remodeling, and microbial involvement in specific lesion phenotypes. Acute-phase proteins such as haptoglobin and serum amyloid A correlate with lesion severity and treatment response. However, no single biomarker demonstrates sufficient sensitivity and specificity for definitive CHL diagnosis.Final Conclusion:An integrated multi-marker approach combining biochemical, hematological, molecular, microbial, hormonal, and oxidative indicators provides a more comprehensive and reliable framework for early detection, disease monitoring, and therapeutic evaluation of CHL in dairy cows.